Европа. Борьба за господство

Quoted in D. M. Schreuder, ‘Gladstone and Italian unification, 1848–70: the making of a Liberal?’, The English Historical Review, LXXXV, 336 (1970), p. 477.

Halford Mackinder, Democratic ideals and reality (London, 2009 [1919]), p. 23.

Robert Bartlett, The making of Europe. Conquest, colonisation and cultural change, 950–1350 (London, 1993), pp. 269–91, especially p. 291.

Thomas N. Bisson, ‘The military origins of medieval representation’, American Historical Review, 71, 4 (1966), pp. 1199–1218, especially pp. 199 and 1203.

Обзоры: A. R. Myers, Parliaments and estates in Europe to 1789 (London, 1975), and H. G. Koenigsberger, ‘Parliaments and estates’, in R. W. Davis (ed.), The origins of modern freedom in the west (Stanford, Calif., 1995), pp. 135–77. Об Англии, Германии и Швеции: Peter Blickle, Steven Ellis and Eva Österberg, ‘The commons and the state: representation, influence, and the legislative process’, in Peter Blickle (ed.), Resistance, representation, and community (Oxford, 1997), pp. 115–54. О парламентской критике большой стратегии: J. S. Roskell, The history of parliament. The House of Commons, 1386–1421 (Stroud, 1992), pp. 89, 101, 101–15, 126, 129 and 137.

Samuel K. Cohn Jr, Lust for liberty. The politics of social revolt in medieval Europe, 1200–1425. Italy, France and Flanders (Cambridge, Mass., and London, 2006), pp. 228–42.

Richard Bonney (ed.), The rise of the fiscal state in Europe, c. 1200–1815 (Oxford, 1999), and Philippe Contamine (ed.), War and competition between states (Oxford, 2000).

Michael Wintle, The image of Europe. Visualizing Europe in cartography and iconography throughout the ages (Cambridge, 2009), pp. 58–64.

Лолларды – христианская община, сложилась в Германии и Голландии; фламандские ткачи, бежавшие в Англию, принесли учение этой общины о социальном равенстве на Британские острова. Гуситы – сторонники чешского социального реформатора Я. Гуса, выступали за уменьшение влияния церкви на мирские дела. Альбигойцы (катары) – религиозное движение во Франции; в период, о котором пишет автор, корректнее говорить о вальденсах – духовных преемниках катаров, отстаивавших ликвидацию частной собственности и апостолическую бедность. – Примеч. ред.

Alfred Kohler, Expansion and Hegemonie. Internationale Beziehungen 1450–1559 (Paderborn, 2008).

Peter Blickle, Obedient Germans? A rebuttal. A new view of German history (Charlottesville, and London, 1997), especially pp. 44–52. See also Martin Kintzinger and Bernd Schneidmüller, Politische Öffentlichkeit im Spätmittelalter (Darmstadt, 2011).

Arnd Reitemeier, Aussenpolitik im Spätmittelalter. Die diplomatischen Beziehungen zwischen dem Reich und England, 1377–1422 (Paderborn, 1999), pp. 14–15, 474–81 and passim.

Marie Tanner, The last descendant of Aeneas. The Hapsburgs and the mythic image of the emperor (New Haven, 1993); Martin Kintzinger, Die Erben Karls des Grossen. Frankreich und Deutschland im Mittelalter (Ostfildern, 2005); and Alexandre Y. Haran, Le lys et le globe. Messianisme dynastique et rêve impérial en France à l’aube des temps modernes (Seyssel, 2000). For the strategic dimension see Duncan Hardy, ‘The 1444–5 expedition of the dauphin Louis to the Upper Rhine in geopolitical perspective’, Journal of Medieval History, 38, 3 (2012), pp. 358–87 (especially pp. 360–70).

Bernd Marquardt, Die ‘europäische Union’ des vorindustriellen Zeitalters. Vom Universalreich zum Staatskörper des Jus Publicum Europaeum (800–1800) (Zurich, 2005).

Thomas A. Brady, German histories in the age of Reformations, 1400–1650 (Cambridge, 2009), pp. 90–98.

Eberhard Isenmann, ‘Reichs nanzen und Reichssteuern im 15. Jahrhundert’, Zeitschrift für die historische Forschung, 7 (1980), pp. 1–76 and 129–218 (especially pp. 1–9).

Tom Scott, ‘Germany and the Empire’, in Christopher Allmand (ed.), The New Cambridge Medieval History. Vol. VII: c. 1415 – c. 1500 (Cambridge, 1998), pp. 337–40.

В классической геополитике хинтерланд – важная территория, примыкающая к уже завоеванной. Примеч. ред.

Quoted in Hugh Thomas, Rivers of gold. The rise of the Spanish Empire (London, 2003, 2010 edition), p. 494.

Quoted in Andreas Osiander, The states system of Europe, 1640–1990. Peacemaking and the conditions of international stability (Oxford, 1994), p. 79.

Jonathan Harris, The end of Byzantium (New Haven and London, 2010), pp. 178–206.

Daniel Goffman, The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe (Cambridge, 2002), pp. 2–3, 9–10, 13 (re the prophet Muhammed), 19, 222 and passim; and Osman Turan, ‘The ideal of world domination among the medieval Turks’, Studia islamica, IV (1955), pp. 77–90, especially pp. 88–9.

Steven Runciman, The fall of Constantinople, 1453 (Cambridge, 1966), pp. 160–80, and W. Brandes, ‘Der Fall Konstantinopels als apokalyptisches Ereignis’, in S. Kolditz and R. C. Müller (eds.), Geschehenes und Geschrie – benes. Studien zu Ehren von Günther S. Henrich und Klaus-Peter Matschke (Leipzig, 2005), pp. 453–69.

Quoted in Iver B. Neumann and Jennifer M. Welsh, ‘The other in European self-definition: an addendum to the literature on international society’, Review of International Studies, 17, 4 (1991), pp. 327–48 (p. 336).

Quoted in Peter O’Brien, European perceptions of Islam and America from Saladin to George W. Bush. Europe’s fragile ego uncovered (London, 2009), p. 75. See also Rhoads Murphey, ‘Süleyman I and the conquest of Hungary: Ottoman manifest destiny or a delayed reaction to Charles V’s universalist vision’, Journal of Early Modern History, 5 (2001), pp. 197–221.

Theodore Spandounes, On the origin of the Ottoman emperors, trans. and ed. Donald M. Nicol (Cambridge, 1997), p. 5.

Иначе Житваторокский мир, подписан в устье реки Житва, предусматривал отказ от ежегодной выплаты Венгрией дани Турции; взамен император согласился на единовременную выплату туркам значительной суммы. Примеч. ред.

Wim Blockmans and Nicolette Mout (ed.), The world of emperor Charles V (Amsterdam, 2004), and Alfred Kohler, Karl V. 1500–1558. Eine Biographie (Munich, 1999).

John Lynch, Spain under the Habsburgs. Vol. I: Empire and absolutism (Oxford, 1981), quotation p. 38. On Charles V and ‘Universal Monarchy’ see Franz Bosbach, Monarchia universalis. Ein politischer Leitbegriff der Frühen Neuzeit (Göttingen, 1988), pp. 35–64.

То есть супруг правящей королевы, Филипп, еще наследником престола женился на Марии Тюдор (Кровавой); после ее смерти он долго предлагал брак королеве Елизавете. Примеч. ред.

Geoffrey Parker, The grand strategy of Philip II (New Haven and London, 1998), p. 4.

Gábor Ágoston, ‘Information, ideology, and limits of imperial policy: Ottoman grand strategy in the context of Ottoman – Habsburg rivalry’, in Virginia H. Aksan and Daniel Goffman (eds.), The Early Modern Ottomans: remapping the empire (Cambridge, 2007), pp. 75–103.

Goffman, Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe, p. 111.

The Sultan’s instructions to the Moriscos and his envoy to Flanders are cited in Andrew C. Hess, ‘The Moriscos: an Ottoman fifth column in sixteenth-century Spain’, American Historical Review, 74, 1 (1968), pp. 19–20.

Esther-Beate Körber, Habsburgs europäische Herrschaft. Von Karl V. bis zum Ende des 16. Jahrhunderts (Darmstadt, 2002), p. 20 and passim.

Quoted in Lynch, Spain under the Habsburgs, pp. 74–5.

Aurelio Espinosa, ‘The grand strategy of Charles V (1500–1558): Castile, war, and dynastic priority in the Mediterranean’, Journal of Early Modern History, 9 (2005), pp. 239–83, especially pp. 239–41 and 258–9.

Federico Chabod, ‘“¿Milán o los Países Bajos?” Las discusiones en España sobre la “alternativa” de 1544’, in Carlos V (1500–1558). Homenaje de la Universidad de Granada (Granada, 1958), pp. 331–72, especially pp. 340–41. I thank Miss Carolina Jimenez Sanchez for translating this article for me.

Volker Press, ‘Die Bundespläne Karls V und die Reichsverfassung’, in Heinrich Lutz (ed.), Das römisch-deutsche Reich im politischen System Karls V. (Munich, 1982), pp. 55–106.

Alfred Kohler, Expansion und Hegemonie. Internationale Beziehungen, 1450–1559 (Paderborn, Munich, etc., 2008), pp. 371–84.

Olivares on Flanders is cited in Jonathan I. Israel, Conflicts of empires. Spain, the Low Countries and the struggle for world supremacy, 1585–1713 (London, 1997), pp. 67–8. For projected Spanish military expenditure in 1634 see the figures in J. H. Elliott, ‘Foreign policy and domestic crisis: Spain, 1598–1659’, in J. H. Elliott, Spain and its world, 1500–1700. Selected essays (New Haven and London, 1989), p. 130.

Randall Lesaffer, ‘Defensive warfare, prevention and hegemony: the justifications of the Franco-Spanish war of 1635’, Journal for International Law, 8 (2006), pp. 91–123 and 141–79. Richelieu on gateways is cited in J. H. Elliott, Richelieu and Olivares (Cambridge, 1984), p. 123.

Quoted in Derek Croxton, Peacemaking in Early Modern Europe. Cardinal Mazarin and the Congress of Westphalia, 1643–1648 (Selinsgrove, Pa, and London, 1999), p. 271.

Quoted in Stuart Carroll, Martyrs and murderers. The Guise family and the making of Europe (Oxford, 2009), p. 68.

Quoted in Alison D. Anderson, On the verge of war. International relations and the Jülich-Kleve succession crises (1609–1614) (Boston, 1999), p. 51.

Anja Victorine Hartmann, Von Regensburg nach Hamburg. Die diplomatischen Beziehungen zwischen dem französischen König und dem Kaiser vom Regensburger Vertrag (13. Oktober 1630) bis zum Hamburger Präliminarfrieden (25. Dezember 1641) (Münster, 1998).

Richelieu is quoted in Hermann Weber, ‘Richelieu und das Reich’, in Heinrich Lutz, Friedrich Hermann Schubert and Hermann Weber (eds.), Frankreich und das Reich im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert (Göttingen, 1968), pp. 36–52 (pp. 39 and 41).

Quoted in Osiander, States system of Europe, p. 28.

James D. Tracy, The founding of the Dutch Republic. War, finance, and politics in Holland, 1572–1588 (Oxford, 2008), pp. 5–7, 143–5, 238–41 and passim. For the connections between the Netherlands and the Empire see Johannes Arndt, Das heilige Römische Reich und die Niederlande 1566 bis 1648. Politisch-Konfessionelle Verflechtung und Publizistik im Achtzigjährigen Krieg (Cologne, 1998).

Rory McEntegart, Henry VIII, the League of Schmalkalden and the English Reformation (Woodbridge, 2002), pp. 11–12 and 217–18 (quotation p. 17).

Cited in R. B. Wernham, Before the Armada. The growth of English foreign policy, 1485–1588 (London, 1966), p. 292.

J. Raitt, ‘The Elector John Casimir, Queen Elizabeth, and the Protestant League’, in D. Visser (ed.), Controversy and conciliation. The Reformation and the Palatinate, 1559–1583 (Allison Park, Pa, 1986), pp. 117–45. 145

О нежелании Елизаветы вторгаться в Нидерланды: Simon Adams, ‘Elizabeth I and the sovereignty of the Netherlands, 1576–1585’, in Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, Sixth Series, XIV (2004), pp. 309–19. 319

Michael Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus (London and New York, 1992), pp. 59–72, and ‘The political objectives of Gustav Adolf in Germany, 1630–2’, in Roberts, Essays in Swedish History (London, 1967), pp. 82–110. The quotations from Gustavus Adolphus and the Rijkstag are in Erik Ringmar, Identity, interest and action. A cultural explanation of Sweden’s intervention in the Thirty Years War (Cambridge, 1996), p. 112. Oxenstierna is quoted in Peter H. Wilson (ed.), The Thirty Years War. A Sourcebook (Basingstoke and New York, 2010), p. 133.

‘Swedish Manifesto. 1630’, in Wilson (ed.), Thirty Years War. A Source-book, p. 122. The concerns about the Habsburgs ‘drawing nearer to the Baltic provinces’ are clearly spelled out on pp. 123–4. The ‘liberty of Germany’ is invoked in the final paragraph, p. 130.

Sigmund Goetze, Die Politik des schwedischen Reichskanzlers Axel Oxenstierna gegenüber Kaiser und Reich (Kiel, 1971), pp. 75–90.

Пожизненным диктатором (лат.). Примеч. ред.

Quoted in Michael Roberts, ‘Oxenstierna in Germany’, in Roberts, From Oxenstierna to Charles XII. Four studies (Cambridge, 1991), p. 26.

О важности для испанцев Германии: Charles Howard Carter, The secret diplomacy of the Habsburgs, 1598–1625 (New York and London, 1964), p. 58.

Quoted in Osiander, States system of Europe, p. 79.

Gülru Necipoğ lu, ‘Süleyman the Magni cent and the representation of power in the context of Ottoman – Habsburg – Papal rivalry’, The Art Bulletin, 71 (1989), pp. 401–27, especially pp. 411–12. 412

Goffman, Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe, pp. 107–8. Важность Центральной Европы и Средиземноморья: Metin Kunt and Christine Woodhead (eds.), Süleyman the Magnificent and his age. The Ottoman Empire in the Early Modern world (London, 1995), pp. 24 and 42–3. 43

Quoted in Karl Brandi, Kaiser Karl V. Wenden und Schicksal einer Persönlichkeit und eines Weltreiches (Munich, 1959), p. 78.

Quoted in John M. Headley, ‘Germany, the Empire and Monarchia in the thought and policy of Gattinara’, in Lutz (ed.), Das römisch-deutsche Reich, p. 18.

Henry J. Cohn, ‘Did bribes induce the German electors to choose Charles V as emperor in 1519?’, German History, 19, 1 (2001), pp. 1–27.

Headley, ‘Germany, the Empire and Monarchia’, in Lutz (ed.), Das römisch-deutsche Reich, pp. 15–33, especially pp. 18–19 (quotations pp. 16 and 22).

Matthias Schnettger and Marcello Verga (eds.), Das Reich und Italien in der Frühen Neuzeit (Berlin and Bologna, 2000). О стычке между Максимилианом и Карлом: Hermann Wies ecker, Kaiser Maximilian I. Das Reich, Österreich und Europa an der Wende zur Neuzeit (Munich, 1975) (quotation p. 50). О “мессианских” амбициях Карла: Haran, Le lys et le globe, pp. 39–40.

Quoted in Heinrich Lutz, ‘Kaiser Karl V., Frankreich und das Reich’, in Lutz et al., Frankreich und das Reich im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert, pp. 7–19 (quotation p. 13).

Quoted in William F. Church, Richelieu and reason of state (Princeton, NJ, 1972), p. 287.

Stella Fletcher, Cardinal Wolsey. A life in Renaissance Europe (London and New York, 2009), pp. 61–2.

C. S. L. Davies, ‘Tournai and the English crown, 1513–1519’, Historical Journal, 41 (1998), pp. 1–26, especially pp. 11–12.

Euan Cameron, The European Reformation (Oxford, 1991), pp. 99–110.

John W. Bohnstedt, The in del scourge of God. The Turkish menace as seen by German pamphleteers of the Reformation era (Philadelphia, 1968), pp. 12–13 and 23–5.

Dieter Mertens, ‘Nation als Teilhabeverheissung: Reformation und Bauernkrieg’, in Dieter Langewiesche and Georg Schmidt (eds.), Föderative Nation. Deutschlandkonzepte von der Reformation bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg (Munich, 2000), pp. 115–34, especially pp. 117–18 and 125–32. Также: Klaus Arnold, ‘“… damit der arm man vnnd gemainer nutz iren furgang haben”… Zum deutschen “Bauernkrieg” als politischer Bewegung: Wen – del Hiplers und Friedrich Weigandts Pläne einer “Reformation” des Reiches’, in Zeitschrift für historische Forschung, 9 (1982), pp. 257–313, especially pp. 296–307 on imperial reform plans.

Andrew Pettegree, The Reformation and the culture of persuasion (Cambridge, 2005), especially pp. 185–210; R. W. Scribner, For the sake of simple folk. Popular propaganda for the German Reformation (Cambridge, 1981); and Peter Lake and Steven Pincus (eds.), The politics of the public sphere in Early Modern England (Manchester and New York, 2007), especially pp. 1–30.

Diarmaid MacCulloch, Reformation. Europe’s house divided, 1490–1700 (London, 2003), especially pp. 124–5. О порожденном Реформацией ощущении уязвимости: Robert von Friedeburg, Self-defence and religious strife in Early Modern Europe. England and Germany, 1530–1680 (Aldershot, 2002).

Claus-Peter Clasen, The Palatinate in European history, 1555–1618 (Oxford, 1963), especially pp. 10–11; and Volker Press, ‘Fürst Christian I. von Anhalt-Bernburg, Statthalter der Oberpfalz, Haupt der evangelischen Bewegungspartei vor dem Dreissigjährigen Krieg (1568–1630)’, in Konrad Ackermann and Alois Schmid (eds.), Staat und Verwaltung in Bayern (Munich, 2003), pp. 193–216.

D. J. B. Trim, ‘Calvinist internationalism and the shaping of Jacobean foreign policy’, in Timothy Wilks (ed.), Prince Henry revived. Image and exemplarity in Early Modern England (London, 2007), pp. 239–58. О самом любопытном агенте “кальвинистского интернационала”: Hugh Trevor-Roper, Europe’s physician. The various life of Sir Theodore de Mayerne (New Haven, 2006).

Cecil on the German princes is cited in David Trim, ‘Seeking a Protestant alliance and liberty of conscience on the continent, 1558–85’, in Susan Doran and Glenn Richardson (eds.), Tudor England and its neighbours (Basingstoke, 2005), pp. 139–77 (p. 157).

Peter H. Wilson, ‘The Thirty Years War as the Empire’s constitutional crisis’, in R. J. W. Evans, Michael Schaich and Peter H. Wilson (eds.), The Holy Roman Empire, 1495–1806 (Oxford, 2010), pp. 95–114.

Heinz Duchhardt, Protestantisches Kaisertum und altes Reich. Die Diskussion über die Konfession des Kaisers in Politik, Publizistik und Staatsrecht (Wiesbaden, 1977), pp. 326–30.

R. A. Stradling, Spain’s struggle for Europe, 1598–1668 (London, 1994).

Zúñiga and Onate are quoted in Eberhard Straub, Pax et imperium. Spaniens Kampf um seine Friedensordnung in Europa zwischen 1617 und 1635 (Paderborn and Munich, 1980), pp. 116–17.

Brennan C. Pursell, The Winter King. Frederick V of the Palatinate and the coming of the Thirty Years War (Aldershot, 2003).

Thomas Brockmann, Dynastie, Kaiseramt und Konfession. Politik und Ordnungsvorstellungen Ferdinands II im Dreissigjährigen Krieg (Paderborn, 2009).

Heinz Duchhardt, ‘Das Reich in der Mitte des Staatensystems. Zum Verhältnis von innerer Verfassung und internationaler Funktion in den Wandlungen des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts’, in Peter Krüger (ed.), Das europäische Staatensystem im Wandel. Strukturelle Bedingungen und bewegende Kräfte seit der Frühen Neuzeit (Munich, 1996), pp. 1–9; and Christoph Kampmann, Europa und das Reich im Dressigjährigen Krieg. Geschichte eines europäischen Kon ikts (Stuttgart, 2008).

Quoted in R. J. Knecht, The Valois. Kings of France, 1328–1589 (London, 2004), p. 144.

Maurice Keen, ‘The end of the Hundred Years War: Lancastrian France and Lancastrian England’, in Michael Jones and Malcolm Vale (eds.), England and her neighbours, 1066–1453 (London and Ronceverte, W. Va, 1989), pp. 297–311, especially pp. 299–301.

О существовании публичной сферы до изобретения книгопечатания и значимости английских войн: Clementine Oliver, Parliament and political pamphleteering in fourteenth-century England (Woodbridge, 2010), p. 4 and passim.

Cited in Helen Castor, Blood and roses (London, 2004), p. 60.

G. L. Harriss, ‘The struggle for Calais: an aspect of the rivalry between Lancaster and York’, The English Historical Review, LXXV, 294 (1960), pp. 30–53, especially pp. 30–31.

Alexandra Gajda, ‘Debating war and peace in late Elizabethan England’, Historical Journal, 52 (2009), pp. 851–78.

Noel Malcolm, Reason of state, propaganda, and the Thirty Years’ War. An unknown translation by Thomas Hobbes (Oxford, 2007), especially pp. 74–8, and Robert von Friedeburg, ‘“Self-defence” and sovereignty: the reception and application of German political thought in England and Scotland, 1628–69’, History of Political Thought, 23 (2002), pp. 238–65.

Almut Höfert, Den feind beschreiben. Türkengefahr und europäisches Wissen über das Osmanische Reich 1450–1600 (Frankfurt, 2003), and Robert Schwoebel, The shadow of the crescent. The Renaissance image of the Turk (1453–1517) (Nieuwkoop, 1967).

Caspar Hirschi, Wettkampf der Nationen. Konstruktionen einer deutschen Ehrgemeinschaft an der Wende vom Mittelalter zur Neuzeit (Göttingen, 2005), pp. 12, 159, and passim.

Alfred Schröcker, Die deutsche Nation. Beobachtungen zur politischen Propaganda des ausgehenden 15. Jahrhunderts (Lübeck, 1974), pp. 116–45, and Joachim Whaley, Germany and the Holy Roman Empire, 1493–1806, 2 vols. (Oxford, 2011).

Elliott, ‘Foreign policy and domestic crisis’, in Elliott, Spain and its world, especially, pp. 118–19.

Sharon Kettering, Power and reputation at the court of Louis XIII. The career of Charles d’Albert, duc de Luynes (1578–1621) (Manchester and New York, 2008), pp. 217–42.

Jonathan Scott, England’s troubles. Seventeenth-century English political instability in European context (Cambridge, 2000), and John Reeve, ‘Britain or Europe? The context of Early Modern English history: political and cultural, economic and social, naval and military’, in Glenn Burgess (ed.), The new British history. Founding a modern state, 1603–1715 (London and New York, 1999), pp. 287–312.

‘Resolutions on religion drawn by a sub-committee of the House of Commons’, 24 February 1629, in S. R. Gardiner, Constitutional documents of the Puritan revolution, 3rd rev. edn (Oxford, 1906), p. 78. On the rise of Calvinist internationalism in England see David Trim, ‘Calvinist inter – nationalism and the shaping of Jacobean foreign policy’, in Timothy Wilks (ed.), Prince Henry revived. Image and exemplarity in Early Modern England (London, 2007), pp. 239–58.

Alfred Kohler, ‘Karl V, Ferdinand I und das Königreich Ungarn’, in Martina Fuchs, Teréz Oborni and Gábor Újváry (eds.), Kaiser Ferdinand I. Ein mitteleuropäischer Herrscher (Münster, 2005), pp. 3–12.

Quoted in Hans Sturmberger, ‘Türkengefahr und österreichische Staatlichkeit’, Südostdeutsches Archiv, X (1967), pp. 132–45.

Winfried Schulze, Reich und Türkengefahr im späten 16. Jahrhundert. Studien zu den politischen und gesellschaftlichen Auswirkungen einer aüsseren Bedrohung (Munich, 1978), especially pp. 270–97.

The declaration of 1575 is cited in Geoffrey Parker, The Dutch Revolt (Harmondsworth, 1990), p. 146. M. C. ’t Hart, The making of a bourgeois state. War, politics and finance during the Dutch revolt (Manchester, 1993), pp. 216–17, makes the point that war and state formation do not necessarily lead to absolutism.

Jane E. A. Dawson, ‘William Cecil and the British dimension of early Elizabethan foreign policy’, History, 74 (1989), pp. 196–216 (Cecil quotation p. 209). О восприятии Шотландии в “европейском” контексте: Roger A. Mason, ‘Scotland, Elizabethan England and the idea of Britain’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, Sixth Series, 14 (2004), pp. 279–93 (especially p. 285). Иакже: William Palmer, The problem of Ireland in Tudor foreign policy 1485–1603 (Woodbridge, 1995), p. 79 and passim, and Brendan Bradshaw and John Morrill (eds.), The British problem, c. 1534–1707. State formation in the Atlantic archipelago (Basingstoke, 1996).

Philip’s representative’s comments to the Moriscos are cited in Lynch, Spain under the Habsburgs, p. 227.

Hess, ‘The Moriscos: an Ottoman fifth column’, pp. 1–25.

Már Jónsson, ‘The expulsion of the Moriscos from Spain in 1609–1614: the destruction of an Islamic periphery’, Journal of Global History, 2 (2007), pp. 195–212, stresses the security dimension, especially p. 203.

О религиозной терпимости и мобилизации против османов: M. A. Chisholm, ‘The Religionspolitik of Emperor Ferdinand I (1521–1564)’, European History Quarterly, 38, 4 (2008), p. 566.

Niccolò Machiavelli, The discourses, ed. Bernard Crick (Harmondsworth, 1970), with quotations (in order of appearance) on pp. 98, 100–102, 152, 168, 300, 252, 255, 130, 124, 259 and 122–3. See also Mikael Hörnqvist, Machiavelli and empire (Cambridge, 2004).

Catherine Nall, ‘Perceptions of financial mismanagement and the English diagnosis of defeat’. Благодарю д-ра Нолл за возможность ознакомиться с неопубликованной рукописью.

Steven Gunn, David Grummitt and Hans Cools, War, state, and society in England and the Netherlands, 1477–1559 (Oxford, 2007), pp. 329–34.

Wallace MacCaffrey, ‘Parliament and foreign policy’, in D. M. Dean and N. L. Jones (eds.), The parliaments of Elizabethan England (Oxford, 1990), pp. 65–90, especially pp. 65–7.

О взаимосвязи сильной монархии и успехов внешней политики: Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, The royal French state, 1460–1610, trans. Judith Vale (Oxford and Cambridge, Mass., 1994). See also Steven Gunn, ‘Politic history, New Monarchy and state formation: Henry VII in European perspective’, Historical Research, 82 (2009), pp. 380–92.

John Guy, ‘The French king’s council, 1483–1526’, in Ralph A. Griffiths and James Sherborne (eds.), Kings and nobles in the later Middle Ages (Gloucester and New York), pp. 274–87. See also Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Royal French state, especially pp. 54–78.

Lynch, Spain under the Habsburgs, pp. 50–51, 59, 63–4, 92–3 and 97.

Quoted in James D. Tracy, The founding of the Dutch Republic. War, finance, and politics in Holland, 1572–1588 (Oxford, 2008), p. 26.

The Middle Volga peasants are cited in Valerie Kivelson, ‘Muscovite “Citizenship”: rights without freedom’, Journal of Modern History, 74, 3 (2002), pp. 465–89 (citation p. 474). See also Hans-Joachim Torke, Die staatsbed – ingte Gesellschaft im Moskauer Reich. Zar und Zemlja in der altrussischen Herrschaftsverfassung, 1613–1689 (Leiden, 1974).

George William is cited in Christopher Clark, Iron kingdom. The rise and downfall of Prussia, 1600–1947 (London, 2006), p. 26.

A. S. Piccolomini, Secret memoirs of a Renaissance pope. The Commentaries of Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, Pius II. An abridgement, trans. Florence A. Gragg and ed. Leona C. Gabel (London, 1988), p. 62. I thank Anastasia Knox for this reference.

Quoted in Karl Nehring, Matthias Corvinus, Kaiser Friedrich III und das Reich. Zum hunyadisch-habsburgischen Gegensatz im Donauerraum (Munich, 1975), p. 130.

Gerhard Benecke, Maximilian I 1459–1519. An analytical biography (London, Boston, Melbourne and Henley, 1982), pp. 141–6.

Peter Schmid, Der gemeine Pfennig von 1495. Vorgeschichte und Entstehung, verfassungsgeschichtliche, politische und nanzielle Bedeu-tung (Göttingen, 1989).

Whaley, Germany and the Holy Roman Empire, pp. 67–80 and passim.

Cited in Branka Magaš, Croatia through history (London, 2008), p. 90. On the initial response of the German Diet to the Ottoman threat see Stephen A. Fischer-Galati, Ottoman imperialism and German Protestantism, 1521–1555 (New York, 1972 repr.), pp. 10–17. I am very grateful to Miss Andrea Fröhlich for sharing her expertise on early sixteenth-century Hungary with me.

Thomas Nicklas, Um Macht und Einheit des Reiches. Konzeption und Wirklichkeit der Politik bei Lazarus von Schwendi (1522–1583) (Husum, 1995), with quotations on pp. 113–14, 116 and 121.

Quoted in Weston F. Cook, The hundred years war for Morocco. Gunpowder and the military revolution in the Early Modern Muslim world (Boulder, San Francisco and Oxford, 1994), p. 83.

Felipe Fernández-Armesto, Columbus (Oxford, 1991), pp. 46 and 153–5.

Abbas Hamdani, ‘Columbus and the recovery of Jerusalem’, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 99, 1 (Jan. – Mar. 1979), pp. 39–48 (p. 43). Реакция турок: Andrew Hess, ‘The evolution of the Ottoman seaborne empire in the age of the oceanic discoveries, 1453–1525’, American Historical Review, 75, 7 (1970), pp. 1892–1919, especially pp. 1894 and 1899 (encirclement), 1905 and 1908 (Indian Ocean).

Robert Finlay, ‘Crisis and crusade in the Mediterranean: Venice, Portugal, and the Cape Route to India (1498–1509)’, in Robert Finlay, Venice besieged. Politics and diplomacy in the Italian wars 1494–1534 (Aldershot, 2008), pp. 45–90.

Hugh Thomas, Rivers of gold. The rise of the Spanish Empire (London and New York, 2003), pp. 540–54.

Patrick Karl O’Brien and Leandro Prados de la Escosura, ‘Balance sheets for the acquisition, retention and loss of European empires overseas’, Itinerario, XXIIII (1999), p. 28 and passim. The quotation is in Lynch, Spain under the Habsburgs, p. 38.

Hans-Joachim König, ‘Plus ultra – Ein Weltreichs – und Eroberungsprogramm? Amerika und Europa in politischen Vorstellungen im Spanien Karls V’, in Alfred Kohler, Barbara Haider and Christine Ottner (eds.), Karl V 1500–1558. Neue Perspektiven seiner Herrschaft in Europa und Übersee (Vienna, 2002), pp. 197–222, especially pp. 203–4.

Вопреки мнению: Hugh Thomas, The golden empire. Spain, Charles V and the creation of America (New York, 2011), pp. 362–3, 370–72 and passim (figures for distribution of gold p. 511).

The English parliamentarians are cited in Thomas Cogswell, The Blessed revolution. English politics and the coming of war, 1621–1624 (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 72–3. Rudyerd is cited in J. H. Elliott, The Old World and the New 1492–1650 (Cambridge, 1992) pp. 90–91.

О важности соперничества за торговлю табаком: homas Cogswell, ‘“In the power of the state”: Mr Anys’s project and the tobacco colonies, 1626–1628’, The English Historical Review, CXX–III, 500 (2008), pp. 35–64.

Susan Hardman Moore, Pilgrims. New World settlers and the call of home (New Haven and London, 2007).

О важности Пфальца, протестантстве и христианской Европе: Francis J. Bremer, Puritan crisis. New England and the English Civil Wars, 1630–1670 (New York and London, 1989), pp. 27–32, 36–42, 45–50, 55–60, 63–4, 84–7 and 237–9 (quotations pp. 63 and 137). Perry Miller, The New England mind. From colony to province (Harvard, 1953), p. 25, подчеркивает, что холм Уинтропа должны были видеть в Европе. Winthrop on Bohemia is cited in Francis J. Bremer, John Winthrop. America’s forgotten founding father (New York and Oxford, 2003), p. 137.

Christoph Kampmann, ‘Peace impossible? The Holy Roman Empire and the European state system in the seventeenth century’, in Olaf Asbach and Peter Schröder (eds.), War, the state and international law in seventeenth-century Europe (Farnham, 2010), pp. 197–210.

Michael Rohrschneider, Der gescheiterte Frieden von Münster. Spaniens Ringen mit Frankreich auf dem Westfälischen Friedenskongress (1643–1649) (Münster, 2007), pp. 90 and 307–11.

Karsten Ruppert, Die kaiserliche Politik auf dem westfälischen Friedenskongress (1643–1648) (Münster, 1979), pp. 39–42 and 115–16.

Quoted in Andreas Osiander, The state system of Europe, 1640–1990. Peacemaking and the conditions of international stability (Oxford, 1994), p. 74.

Lothar Höbelt, Ferdinand III. Friedenskaiser wider Willen (Graz, 2008), pp. 224–9.

K. J. Holsti’s hugely influential International politics. A framework for analysis, 4th edn (Englewood Cliffs, 1983), pp. 4 and 83–4. For a more recent enunciation of this view see Thomas G. Weiss, Humanitarian intervention. Ideas in action (Cambridge, 2007), p. 14.

Article 8. The text of the treaty can be found in Clive Parry (ed.), The consolidated treaty series (New York, 1969), pp. 198–356.

Joachim Whaley, ‘A tolerant society? Religious toleration in the Holy Roman Empire, 1648–1806’, in Ole Grell and Roy Porter (eds.), Toleration in Enlightenment Europe (Cambridge, 2000), pp. 175–95, especially pp. 176–7.

Derek Croxton, ‘The Peace of Westphalia of 1648 and the origins of sovereignty’, International History Review, 21, 3 (1999) pp. 569–91 (quotations pp. 589–90).

Andreas Osiander, ‘Sovereignty, international relations, and the Westphalian myth’, International Organization, 55 (2001), pp. 251–87; Stéphane Beaulac, ‘The Westphalian legal orthodoxy – myth or reality?’, Journal of the History of International Law, 2 (2000), pp. 148–77; and Stephen D. Krasner, ‘Westphalia and all that’, in Judith Goldstein and Robert O. Keohane (eds.), Ideas and foreign policy. Beliefs, institutions and political change (Ithaca and London, 1993), p. 235. Социологический взгляд: Benno Teschke, The myth of 1648. Class, geopolitics, and the making of modern international relations (London and New York, 2003).

Peter Englund, Die Verwüstung Deutschlands. Eine Geschichte des dreissigjährigen Krieges (Stuttgart, 1998), especially pp. 343–63, and Thomas Robisheaux, Rural society and the search for order in Early Modern Germany (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 201–26.

Ian Roy, ‘England turned Germany? The aftermath of the Civil War in its European context’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, Fifth Series, 28 (1978), pp. 127–44 (especially pp. 127–30).

Иное мнение: David Lederer, ‘The myth of the all-destructive war: afterthoughts on German suffering, 1618–1648’, German History, 29, 3 (2011), pp. 380–403.

Quoted in Klaus Malettke, ‘Europabewusstsein und europäische Friedenspläne im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert’, Francia, 21 (1994), pp. 63–94 (p. 69).

Quoted in Sven Externbrink, Friedrich der Grosse, Maria Theresia und das alte Reich. Deutschlandbild und diplomatie Frankreichs im Siebenjährigen Krieg (Berlin, 2006), pp. 89–90.

David Onnekink (ed.), War and religion after Westphalia, 1648–1713 (Farnham, 2009), pp. 1–15.

Букв. «имперское установление» (нем.). Примеч. ред.

Bernd Marquardt, ‘Zur reichsgerichtlichen Aberkennung der Herrschergewalt wegen Missbrauchs: Tyrannenprozesse vor dem Reichshofrat am Beispiel des südöstlichen schwäbischen Reichskreises’, in Anette Baumann, Peter Oestmann, Stephan Wendehorst and Siegrid Westphal (eds.), Prozesspraxis im alten Reich. Annäherungen – Fallstudien – Statistiken (Cologne, Weimar and Vienna, 2005).

Karl Härter, ‘Sicherheit und Frieden im frühneuzeitlichen Alten Reich: zur, Funktion der Reichsverfassung als Sicherheits – und Friedensordnung 1648–1806’, Zeitschrift für historische Forschung, 30 (2003), pp. 413–31.

D. J. B. Trim, “If a prince use tyrannie towards his people”: interventions on behalf of foreign populations in Early Modern Europe’, in Brendan Simms and D. J. B. Trim (eds.), Humanitarian intervention. A history (Cambridge, 2011), pp. 54–64.

Thomas Gage’s remarks of about 1654 are cited in Charles P. Korr, Cromwell and the New Model foreign policy. England’s policy toward France, 1649–1658 (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, 1975) p. 89. Article 42 of the Treaty of the Pyrenees is cited in Peter Sahlins, ‘Natural frontiers revisited. France’s boundaries since the seventeenth century’, American Historical Review, 95, 5 (1990), pp. 1423–51 (p. 1430).

Robert I. Frost, The northern wars. War, state and society in north-eastern Europe, 1558–1721 (Harlow, 2000), pp. 198–200.

The Great Elector is cited in Richard Dietrich (ed.), Die politischen Testamente der Hohenzollern (Cologne and Vienna, 1986), p. 188.

Paul Sonnino, Mazarin’s quest. The Congress of Westphalia and the coming of the Fronde (Cambridge, Mass., and London, 2008), pp. 168–71.

Richard Bonney, Society and government in France under Richelieu and Mazarin 1624–61 (Basingstoke, 1988), pp. 21–5.

Cited in Christopher Clark, Iron kingdom. The rise and downfall of Prussia, 1600–1947 (London, 2006), p. 55.

Christoph Fürbringer, Necessitas und libertas. Staatsbildung und Landstände im 17. Jahrhundert in Brandenburg (Frankfurt, 1985), passim (quotations pp. 56, 67 and 162–3).

F. L. Carsten, ‘The resistance of Cleves and Mark to the despotic policy of the Great Elector’, The English Historical Review, LXVI, 259 (1951), pp. 219–41, especially pp. 223–4 and 232 on the foreign policy link.

Ferdinand Grönebaum, Frankreich in Ost – und Nordeuropa. Die französisch-russischen Beziehungen von 1648–1689 (Wiesbaden, 1968), especially pp. 32–3.

Peter Burke, The fabrication of Louis XIV (New Haven, 1992).

Georges Livet, ‘Louis XIV and the Germanies’, in Ragnhild Hatton (ed.), Louis XIV and Europe (London and Basingstoke, 1976), pp. 60–81, especially pp. 62–3.

Quoted in Andrew Lossky, Louis XIV and the French monarchy (New Brunswick, NJ, 1994), p. 129.

Guy Rowlands, The dynastic state and the army under Louis XIV. Royal service and private interest, 1661–1701 (Cambridge, 2002).

Стратегическая мотивация: Leslie Tuttle, Conceiving the old regime. Pronatalism and the politics of reproduction in Early Modern France (Oxford, 2010), p. 7.

John A. Lynn, Giant of the Grand Siècle. The French army, 1610–1715 (Cambridge, 1997), especially pp. 595–609.

William Beik, Absolutism and society in seventeenth-century France. State power and provincial aristocracy in Languedoc (Cambridge, 1985), pp. 150–51 and 156–7, and Bailey Stone, The genesis of the French Revolution. A global-historical interpretation (Cambridge, 1994), p. 58. The quotations range from the 1630s to the 1690s.

Название одной из высших должностей в Соединенных провинциях, дававшей право, в частности, от имени Генеральных штатов вести переговоры с иноземными послами и министрами. Примеч. ред.

Writing in 1673, quoted in Klaus Malettke, Frankreich, Deutschland und Europa im 17 und 18. Jahrhundert. Beiträge zum Ein uss französischer politischer Theorie, Verfassung und Aussenpolitik in der Frühen Neuzeit (Marburg, 1994), p. 311.

О влиянии внешнего давления на работу сейма: Anton Schindling, Die Anfänge des immerwährenden Reichstags zu Regensburg. Ständevertretung und Staatskunst nach dem Westfälischen Frieden (Mainz, 1991), pp. 53–5, 68–90 and 229–30.

Wout Troost, ‘“To restore and preserve the liberty of Europe”. William III’s ideas on foreign policy’, in David Onnekink and Gijs Rommelse (eds.), Ideology and foreign policy in Early Modern Europe (1650–1750) (Farn – ham, 2011), pp. 283–304 (German context pp. 288–9).

О важности Нидерландов и Германии для испанской стратегии: Christopher Storrs, The resilience of the Spanish monarchy, 1665–1700 (Oxford, 2006), pp. 14 and 113–14. Аннексия Франш-Конте: Darryl Dee, Expansion and crisis in Louis XIV’s France. Franche-Comté and absolute monarchy, 1674–1715 (Rochester, NY, and Woodbridge, 2009).

Sonja Schultheiss-Heinz, ‘Contemporaneity in 1672–1679: the Paris Gazette, the London Gazette, and the Teutsche Kriegs-Kurier (1672–1679)’, in Brendan Dooley (ed.), The dissemination of news and the emergence of contemporaneity in Early Modern Europe (Farnham, 2010), pp. 115–36.

Об английских политических памфлетах: Tony Claydon, Europe and the making of England, 1660–1760 (Cambridge, 2007), pp. 220–25. Германия: Erich Everth, Die Öffentlichkeit in der Aussenpolitik von Karl V. bis Napoleon (Jena, 1931), pp. 155–7.

Alexander Schmidt, ‘Ein französischer Kaiser? Die Diskussion um die Nationalität des Reichsoberhauptes im 17. Jahrhundert’, Historisches Jahrbuch, 123 (2003), pp. 149–77, especially pp. 150, 156–8 and 174.

Gabriel Glickman, ‘Conflicting visions: foreign affairs in domestic debate, 1660–1689’, in William Mulligan and Brendan Simms (eds.), The primacy of foreign policy in British history, 1660–2000. How strategic concerns shaped modern Britain (Basingstoke, 2010), pp. 15–31.

Quoted in Brendan Simms, Three victories and a defeat. The rise and fall of the first British Empire, 1714–1783 (London, 2007), p. 32.

Annabel Patterson, The Long Parliament of Charles II (New Haven and London, 2008), pp. 178–208, especially pp. 179–80.

О важности «деволюционной войны» для отношения немцев к Людовику: Martin Wrede, Das Reich und seine Feinde: politische Feindbilder in der reichspatriotischen Publizistik zwischen Westfälischem Frieden und Siebenjährigem Krieg (Mainz, 2004), pp. 330–407.

Leonard Krieger, The German idea of freedom. History of a political tradition (Chicago and London, 1957), pp. 6, 19 and passim.

Quoted in Peter SchrÖder, ‘The constitution of the Holy Roman Empire after 1648: Samuel Pufendorf’s assessment in his Monzambano’, Historical Journal, 42 (1999), pp. 961–83 (quotation p. 970).

Wolfgang Burgdorf, Reichskonstitution und Nation. Verfassungsreformprojekte für das Heilige Römische Reich deutscher Nation im politischen Schrifttum von 1648 bis 1806 (Mainz, 1998), W. H. Pufendorf quotations pp. 70–73.

Sophus Reinert, Translating Empire. Emulation and the origins of political economy (Cambridge, Mass., 2011).

О Вестфальском мире, пиренейском мире и имперской политике Испании: Stanley H. Stein and Barbara H. Stein, Silver, trade and war. Spain and America in the making of Early Modern Europe (Baltimore and London, 2000), pp. 57–105.

Louvois’s remark of June 1684 is cited in Livet, ‘Louis XIV and the Germanies’.

Wouter Troost, ‘William III, Brandenburg, and the construction of the anti-French coalition, 1672–88’, in Jonathan Israel (ed.), The Anglo-Dutch moment. Essays on the Glorious Revolution and its world impact (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 299–333.

Quoted in G. Symcox, ‘Louis XIV and the outbreak of the Nine Years War’, in Ragnhild Hatton (ed.), Louis XIV in Europe (London, 1976), p. 187.

Quoted in John A. Lynn, The wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714 (London and New York, 1999), p. 197.

Quotations in Claydon, Europe and the making of England, pp. 56 and 239.

Charles II is quoted in ibid., p. 237.

Tony Claydon, William III and the godly revolution (Cambridge, 1996), pp. 138–40 and passim.

Christopher Storrs, ‘The army of Lombardy and the resilience of Spanish power in Italy in the reign of Carlos II (1665–1700)’, in War in History, Part I, 4 (1997), pp. 371–97, and Part II, 5 (1998), pp. 1–22.

Quoted in Wout Troost, ‘Ireland’s role in the foreign policy of William III’, in Esther Mijers and David Onnekink (eds.), Rede ning William III. The impact of the King-Stadholder in international context (Aldershot, 2007), pp. 53–68 (quotation p. 53).

Quoted in Everth, Öffentlichkeit in der Aussenpolitik, p. 147.

Steve Pincus, 1688. The first modern revolution (New Haven and London, 2009), pp. 475–7 and passim.

David Stasavage, Public debt and the birth of the democratic state. France and Great Britain, 1688–1789 (Cambridge, 2003).

Philip J. Stern, The company-state. Corporate sovereignty and the Early Modern foundations of the British Empire in India (Oxford, 2011).

Robert D. McJimsey, ‘A country divided? English politics and the Nine Years’ War’, Albion, 23, 1 (1991), pp. 61–74.

Quoted in Miles Ogborn, ‘The capacities of the state: Charles Davenant and the management of the excise, 1683–1698’, Journal of Historical Geography, 24 (1998), pp. 289–312.

A. F. Upton, Charles XI and Swedish absolutism (Cambridge, 1998), pp. 71–89.

Peter H. Wilson, War, state and society in Württemberg, 1677–1793 (Cambridge, 1995), especially pp. 247–8.

Andre Wakefield, The disordered police state. German cameralism as science and practice (Chicago and London, 2009).

Owen Stanwood, ‘The Protestant moment: anti-popery, the Revolution of 1688–1689, and the making of an Anglo-American empire’, Journal of British Studies, 46 (2007), pp. 481–508 (quotations pp. 488, 491, 501 and 491).

Quoted in Christian Greiner, ‘Das “Schild des Reiches”. Markgraf Ludwig Wilhelm von Baden-Baden (1655–1707) und die “Reichsbarriere” am Oberrhein’, in Johannes Kunisch (ed.), Expansion und Gleichgewicht. Studien zur europäischen Mächtepolitik des ancien régime (Berlin, 1986), pp. 31–68 (quotation p. 47).

Французская колония в Северной Америке, занимала полуостров Новая Шотландия, территорию современной провинции Нью-Брансуик и ряд островов в океане. Примеч. ред.

Linda and Marsha Frey, A question of empire. Leopold I and the War of Spanish Succession, 1701–1705 (Boulder, 1983), pp. 15–17, 47 (quotation) and passim.

Peter Baumgart, ‘Die preussische Königskrönung von 1701, das Reich und die europäische Politik’, in Oswald Hauser (ed.), Preussen, Europa und das Reich (Cologne and Vienna, 1987), pp. 65–86, especially pp. 72–4.

The Admiralty instructions are quoted in Simms, Three victories, p. 50.

Quoted in Frey and Frey, Question of empire, p. 77.

Charles Spencer, Blenheim. Battle for Europe. How two men stopped the conquest of Europe (London, 2004).

Австрия установила в обоих княжествах суровые оккупационные порядки. Примеч. ред.

Martin Schulze-Wessel, Russlands Blick auf Preussen. Die polnische Frage in der Diplomatie und der politischen Öffentlichkeit des Zarenreiches und des Sowjetstaates, 1697–1947 (Stuttgart, 1995), pp. 35 and 37.

Andrew Rothstein, Peter the Great and Marlborough. Politics and diplomacy in converging wars (Basingstoke, 1986), p. 37.

Rothstein, Peter the Great and Marlborough, pp. 63 and 65–6.

Quoted in J. M. Dunn, ‘“Bright enough for all our purposes”. John Locke’s conception of a civilized society’, Notes and Records of the Royal Society London, 43 (1989), p. 134.

Michael Kwass, ‘A kingdom of taxpayers: state formation, privilege and political culture in eighteenth-century France’, Journal of Modern History, 70, 2 (1998), pp. 295–339, especially pp. 301 and 303.

Согласно документам, Военная коллегия основана в 1719 г. Примеч. ред.

Simon M. Dixon, The modernisation of Russia, 1676–1825 (Cambridge, 1999), pp. 42–9 and 61–7.

Christopher Storrs, ‘The Union of 1707 and the War of the Spanish Succession’, in Stewart J. Brown and Christopher A. Whatley (eds.), The Union of 1707. New dimensions (Edinburgh, 2008), pp. 31–44, and Allan I. Macinnes, Union and empire. The making of the United Kingdom in 1707 (Cambridge, 2007), pp. 243–76.

The Council of State’s protest to Philip is in Henry Kamen, The war of succession in Spain, 1700–1715 (London, 1969), p. 91.

Albert N. Hamscher, The Parlement of Paris after the Fronde, 1653–1673 (Pittsburgh, 1976), pp. 89–90, 122–3 and 198.

Имеется в виду Худайбийский мирный договор (март 628 г.), по которому сторонники Мухаммеда заключили мир с курайшитами, владевшими Меккой, и получили возможность совершать священное паломничество (хадж). Примеч. ред.

Высший надворный суд с функциями апелляционного суда. Примеч. ред.

‘Erste Ermahnung Kurfürst Friedrichs III an seinen Nachfolger’, in Richard Dietrich (ed.), Die politischen Testamente der Hohenzollern (Cologneand Vienna, 1986), p. 218.

Quoted in Charles Ingrao, In quest and crisis. Emperor Joseph I and the Habsburg monarchy (West Lafayette, 1979), p. 58. On the increasing divisions between Habsburg and Hohenzollern see Christiane Kauer, Brandenburg-Preussen und Österreich, 1705–1711 (Bonn, 1999), pp. 85–6, 159 and passim.

Rothstein, Peter the Great and Marlborough, p. 112.

Во Франции должностное лицо, которое ведало какой-либо отраслью государственного управления (финансы, торговля и т. д.). Помимо придворных интендантов существовали также должности интендантов провинций; «провинциальные» интенданты являлись фактически наместниками короны (при этом военная власть оставалась за губернаторами, но вскоре за последними оставили лишь представительские функции). Примеч. ред.

Louis’s appeal is quoted in James B. Collins, The state in Early Modern France (Cambridge, 1995), p. 162.

St John is quoted in Simms, Three victories, p. 65.

Ragnhild Hatton, George I. Elector and king (London, 1978).

Имеется в виду так называемый Старый (или Старший) претендент на английский трон Джеймс Ф. Стюарт, сын Якова II и непризнанный Яков III. Его сына Чарльза Эдуарда Стюарта (он же – Красавчик принц Чарли) называли Молодым претендентом. Примеч. ред.

Leibniz is quoted in Rothstein, Peter the Great and Marlborough, p. 124.

David Kirby, ‘Peter the Great and the Baltic’, in Lindsey Hughes (ed.), Peter the Great and the West. New perspectives (Basingstoke, 2001), pp. 177–88.

Quoted in Karl A. Roider, Austria’s Eastern Question, 1700–1790 (Princeton, 1982), p. 40.

Эти два абзаца тесно связаны с моей статьей: “A false principle in the law of nations”. Burke, state sovereignty, [German] liberty, and intervention in the age of Westphalia’, in Brendan Simms and D. J. B. Trim (eds.), Humanitarian intervention. A history (Cambridge, 2011), pp. 89–110 (quotations p. 95), а также с неопубликованной работой Патрика Милтона об интервенциях в Центральной Европе начала восемнадцатого столетия.

Benedict Wagner-Rundell, ‘Holy war and republican pacifism in the early-eighteenth-century Commonwealth of Poland—Lithuania’, in David Onnekink and Gijs Rommelse (eds.), Ideology and foreign policy in Early Modern Europe (1650–1750) (Farnham, 2011), pp. 163–80, especially pp. 172–3.

Speaking in 1721, quoted in Simms, Three victories, p. 169.

Huxelles is quoted in Jörg Ulbert, ‘Die Angst vor einer habsburgischen Hegemonie im Reich als Leitmotiv der französischen Deutschlandpolitik unter der Regentschaft Philipps von Orleans (1715–1723)’, in Thomas Höpel (ed.), Deutschlandbilder – Frankreichbilder. 1700–1850. Rezeption und Abgrenzung zweier Kulturen (Leipzig, 2001), pp. 57–74 (p. 67).

Австрийская частная торговая компания, основанная для торговли с Индией. Примеч. ред.

Quoted in Simms, Three victories, p. 183.

Название происходит от кальки с турецкого названия канцелярии великого визиря – «высокие ворота» (ит. Porta). Примеч. ред.

Townshend is quoted in Simms, Three victories, p. 197.

Lucian Hölscher, Öffentlichkeit und Geheimnis. Eine begriffsgeschichtliche Untersuchung zur Entstehung der Öffentlichkeit in der Frühen Neuzeit (Stuttgart, 1979), and Andreas Gestrich, Absolutismus und Öffentlichkeit. Politische Kommunikation in Deutschland zu Beginn des 18. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1994).

The Friedens-Courier is quoted in Gestrich, Absolutismus und Öffentlichkeit, p. 222.

The First Commissioner of the French foreign ministry is quoted in Extern – brink, Friedrich der Grosse, pp. 89–90.

The Austrian instructions are quoted in Arthur M. Wilson, French foreign policy during the administration of Cardinal Fleury, 1729–1743. A study in diplomacy and commercial development (New York, 1972), p. 169.

Maren Köster, Russische Truppen für Prinz Eugen. Politik mit militärischen Mitteln im frühen 18. Jahrhundert (Vienna, 1986).

Colin Jones, The great nation. France from Louis XV to Napoleon, 1715–99 (London, 2007), p. xxi and passim.

Paul Bushkovitch, Peter the Great. The struggle for power, 1671–1725 (Cambridge, 2001), passim, especially pp. 270–80 (on Poland p. 444).

James Cracraft, The revolution of Peter the Great (Cambridge, Mass., 2003), pp. 29–37 and 54–74 (Table of Ranks p. 35).

Букв. «бронзовому утесу» (фр.), то есть непоколебимому основанию. Примеч. ред.

Hanna Schissler, Preussische Agrargesellschaft im Wandel. Wirtschaftliche, gesellschaftliche und politische Transformationsprozesse von 1763 bis 1847 (Göttingen, 1978).

Lars Atorf, Der König und das Korn. Die Getreidehandelspolitik als Fundament des brandenburgisch-preussischen Aufsteigs zur europäischen Grossmacht (Berlin, 1999), pp. 86–139.

Frederick William’s warning is quoted in Helmut Neuhaus, ‘Kronerwerb und Staatskonsolidierung. Der Aufstieg Brandeburg-Preussens im 18. Jahr-hundert als Forschungsproblem’, in Christiane Liermann, Gustavo Corni and Frank-Lothar Kroll, Italien und Preussen. Dialog der Historiographien (Tübingen, 2005), pp. 27–37 (p. 29).

D. W. Hayton, James Kelly, and John Bergin (eds.), The eighteenth-century composite state. Representative institutions in Ireland and Europe, 1689–1800 (Basingstoke, 2010), especially pp. 4–5.

Michael G. Müller, Polen zwischen Preussen und Russland. Souveränitätskrise und Reformpolitik, 1736–1752 (Berlin, 1983), especially pp. 253–4 and 152–200.

Herbert H. Rowen, The princes of Orange. The Stadholders in the Dutch Republic (Cambridge, 1988).

Simms, Three victories, pp. 103–4.

John Brewer, The sinews of power. War, money, and the English state, 1688–1783 (London, 1989).

Hasan Kurdi is quoted in Virginia H. Aksan, Ottoman wars 1700–1870. An empire besieged (Harlow, 2007), p. 92.

Suraiya Faroqhi, The Ottoman Empire and the world around it (London, 2007), pp. 27–8.

Daniel Goffman, The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe (Cambridge, 2002), pp. 117–18, and George S. Rentz, The birth of the Islamic reform movement in Saudi Arabia. Muhammad b.‘Abd al-Wahhab (1703/4–1792) and the beginnings of Unitarian empire in Arabia (London, 2004).

The Abbé de Saint-Pierre is quoted in Wilson, Fleury, p. 42. Frederick William’s remarks on colonies are to be found in Clark, Iron kingdom, p. 93.

Здесь и далее в большинстве случаев высказывания отечественных государственных деятелей, политиков, дипломатов и др. цитируются не по первоисточникам, а в переводе с английского; это позволяет оценить, как их слова в свое время оценивались – и продолжают оцениваться сегодня – носителями западной политической культуры. Примеч. ред.

Münnich is quoted in Lavender Cassels, The struggle for the Ottoman Empire, 1717–1740 (London, 1966), p. 100.

The Ottoman observer (a Kadi, or senior legal gure) is quoted in Cassels, Struggle for the Ottoman Empire, p. 154.

The British envoy is quoted in ibid., p. 24.

Lord Bathurst is quoted in Simms, Three victories, p. 259.

Philip Wood ne, Britannias glories. The Walpole ministry and the 1739 war with Spain (London, 1998).

Quoted in Simms, Three victories, p. 275.

Quoted in ibid., p. 251.

Quoted in ibid., p. 274.

Johannes Kunisch, Friedrich der Grosse. Der König und seine Zeit (Munich, 2004), pp. 159–84.

Neuhaus, ‘Kronerwerb und Staatskonsolidierung’, in Liermann et al. (eds.), Italien und Preussen, pp. 27–37 (quotation p. 27).

Tim Blanning, ‘Frederick the Great’, in Brendan Simms and Karina Urbach (eds.), Die Rückkehr der ‘Grossen Männer’. Staatsmänner im Krieg – ein deutsch-britischer Vergleich 1740–1945 (Berlin and New York, 2010), pp. 11–20 (quotation p. 12).

Структура британского кабинета министров, отвечавшая за развитие соответствующего региона королевства. В 1782 г. Северный и Южный департаменты лишили функций надзора за внутренними делами и объединили в Форин офис – министерство иностранных дел. Примеч. ред.

Newcastle is quoted in Simms, Three victories, p. 288.

Peter Baumgart, ‘The annexation and integration of Silesia into the Prussian state of Frederick the Great’, in Mark Greengrass (ed.), Conquest and coalescence. The shaping of the state in Early Modern Europe (London, 1991), p. 160.

P. G. M. Dickson, Finance and government under Maria Theresia, 1740–1780, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1987), especially vol. I, pp. 1, 266–7 and 270–71.

Baruch Mevorach, ‘Die Interventionsbestrebungen in Europa zur Verhinderung der Vertreibung der Juden aus Böhmen und Mähren, 1744–1745’, Jahrbuch des Instituts für deutsche Geschichte, IX (1980), pp. 15–81 (quotations pp. 34 and 54).

The quotations are in Simms, Three victories, p. 289.

For the quotation see Rowen, The princes of Orange, p. 163.

Gyllenborg is quoted in John P. LeDonne, The Russian Empire and the world, 1700–1917. The geopolitics of expansion and containment (New York and Oxford, 1997), p. 35.

Francine-Dominique Liechtenhan, La Russie entre en Europe. Elisabeth Ière et la succession de l’Autriche (1740–1750) (Paris, 1997), especially pp. 46–9.

Имеются в виду события 1740–1741 гг.: по завещанию Анны Иоанновны регентом при малолетнем императоре Иване VI становился герцог Бирон; после низложения Бирона регентом стала мать Ивана Анна Леопольдовна. В конце 1741 г. состоялся военный переворот, и на трон взошла Елизавета. Примеч. ред.

Stainville is quoted in Rohan Butler, Choiseul. Vol. 1: Father and son, 1719–1754 (Oxford, 1980), p. 700. For French fears of the advancing Russians see ibid., pp. 724–6 (Sandwich quotation p. 724).

Thomas E. Kaiser, ‘The drama of Charles Edward Stuart, Jacobite propaganda, and French political protest, 1745–1750’, Eighteenth-Century Studies, 30 (1997), pp. 365–81.

Quoted in Hagen Schulze, The course of German nationalism. From Frederick the Great to Bismarck, 1763–1867 (Cambridge, 1990).

Quoted in T. C. W. Blanning, ‘The Bonapartes and Germany’, in Peter Baehr and Melvin Richter (eds.), Dictatorship in history and theory. Bonapartism, Caesarism, and totalitarianism (Cambridge and New York, 2004), p. 54.

Cited in Daniel A. Baugh, ‘Withdrawing from Europe: Anglo-French maritime geopolitics, 1750–1800’, International History Review, 20, 1 (1998), pp. 14–16.

Quoted in Externbrink, Friedrich der Grosse, Maria Theresia und das alte Reich. Deutschlandbild und Diplomatie Frankreichs im Siebenjährigen Krieg (Berlin, 2006), p. 316.

Quoted in L. Jay Oliva, Misalliance. A study of French policy in Russia during the Seven Years’ War (New York, 1964), p. 9.

Newcastle is cited in Reed Browning, The Duke of Newcastle (Cambridge, Mass., 1975), p. 182.

Reed Browning, ‘The Duke of Newcastle and the imperial election plan, 1749–1754’, Journal of British Studies, 7 (1967–68), pp. 28–47.

Richard L. Merritt, ‘The colonists discover America: attention patterns in the colonial press, 1735–1775’, William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, XXI, 2 (April 1964), pp. 270–87, especially pp. 270–72.

Cited in Max Savelle, ‘The appearance of an American attitude toward external affairs’, American Historical Review, 52, 4 (1947), pp. 655–66 (quotation p. 660).

Quoted in Brendan Simms, Three victories and a defeat. The rise and fall of the first British Empire, 1714–1783 (London, 2007), p. 393.

Ibid., p. 391.

A. G. Olson, ‘The British government and colonial union, 1754’, William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, XVII, 1 (1960), pp. 24–6 (quotation p. 26).

Fred Anderson, Crucible of war. The Seven Years War and the fate of empire in British North America, 1754–1766 (New York, 2000).

Frederick the Great, The history of my own times (1746). Posthumous works of Frederic II. King of Prussia (London, 1789), Vol. I, p. xx. I thank Ilya Berkovich for this reference.

Quoted in Tim Blanning, ‘Frederick the Great’, in Brendan Simms and Karina Urbach (eds.), Die Rückkehr der ‘Grossen Männer’. Staatsmänner im Krieg – ein deutsch-britischer Vergleich 1740–1945 (Berlin and New York, 2010), p. 18.

Frederick the Great, History of my own times, Vol. I, pp. 214–15.

Об изгнании аккадцев как “этнической чистке” см. Geoffrey Plank, An unsettled conquest. The British campaign against the peoples of Acadia (Philadelphia, 2001), pp. 140–57.

Quoted in H. M. Scott, The emergence of the eastern powers, 1756–1775 (Cambridge, 2001), p. 26.

Erich Everth, Die Öffentlichkeit in der Aussenpolitik von Karl V. bis Napoleon (Jena, 1931), pp. 355–60 (quotation p. 360).

D. A. Baugh, The global Seven Years War, 1754–1763. Britain and France in a great power contest (Harlow, 2011).

В отечественной историографии после С. М. Соловьева установилось обозначение «Клостерсевенское соглашение»: эту конвенцию подписали в Цевенском монастыре (клостере). Примеч. ред.

Helmut Neuhaus, ‘Das Problem der militärischen Exekutive in der spätphase des Alten Reiches’, in Johannes Kunisch (ed.), Staatsverfassung und Heeresverfassung in der europäischen Geschichte der Frühen Neuzeit (Berlin, 1986), pp. 297–346 (quotations pp. 297 and 299).

Philip Carter, ‘An “effeminate” or “efficient” nation? Masculinity and eighteenth century social documentary’, Textual Practice, 11 (1997), pp. 429–43 (quotation p. 429).

Matthew McCormack, ‘The new militia: war, politics and gender in 1750s Britain’, Gender & History, 19 (2007), pp. 483–500 (quotation p. 497).

Erica Charters, ‘The caring fiscal military state during the Seven Years War, 1756–1763’, Historical Journal, 52 (2009), pp. 921–41, especially pp. 937–40 (quotation p. 939).

H. M. Scott, ‘The decline of France and the transformation of the European states system, 1756–1792’, in Peter Krüger and Paul W. Schroeder (eds.), The transformation of European politics, 1763–1848. Episode or model in modern history? (Oxford, 1996), pp. 105–28 (Voltaire quotation p. 114).

John Shovlin, The political economy of virtue. Luxury, patriotism and the origins of the French Revolution (Ithaca and London, 2006), pp. 54–5.

Quoted in Bailey Stone, The genesis of the French Revolution. A global-historical interpretation (Cambridge, 1994), p. 55. See also T. C. W. Blanning, The French Revolutionary Wars, 1787–1802 (London, 1996).

Brendan Simms, ‘William Pitt the Elder. Strategic leadership at home and abroad during the great war for the empires (1756–1763)’, in Simms and Urbach (eds.), Die Rückkehr der ‘Grossen Männer’, pp. 29–48, especially pp. 32–4.

Brendan Simms, ‘Pitt and Hanover’, in Brendan Simms and Torsten Riotte (eds.), The Hanoverian dimension in British history, 1714–1837 (Cambridge, 2007), pp. 28–57 (quotation p. 55).

«Сомнения и вопросы» (фр.). Примеч. ред.

Gary Savage, ‘Favier’s heirs: the French Revolution and the secret du roi’, Historical Journal, 41 (1998), pp. 225–58.

Hamish Scott, ‘The Seven Years War and Europe’s ancien régime’, War in History, 18 (2011), pp. 419–55.

Quoted in Hugh Ragsdale, ‘Russian projects of conquest in the eighteenth century’, in Ragsdale (ed.), Imperial Russian foreign policy (Cambridge, 1993), p. 76.

Quoted in Externbrink, Friedrich der Grosse, p. 339.

О кризисе французской аристократии после Семилетней войны: William Doyle, Aristocracy and its enemies in the Age of Revolution (Oxford, 2009), pp. 57, 83 and passim.

Gabriel B. Paquette, Enlightenment, governance and reform in Spain and its empire, 1759–1808 (Basingstoke, 2008).

J. H. Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World. Britain and Spain in America, 1492–1830 (New Haven and London, 2006), p. 299.

D. R. Murray, ‘Statistics of the slave trade to Cuba, 1790–1867’, Journal of Latin American Studies, 3, 2 (1971), pp. 131–49. I am grateful to Carrie Gibson and Felicitas Becker for very useful conversations on this subject.

Evelyn Powell Jennings, ‘War as the “forcing house of change”: state slavery in late-eighteenth-century Cuba’, William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, LXII (2005), 411–40.

Scott, Emergence of the eastern powers, pp. 76 and 79.

Manfred Schort, Politik und Propaganda. Der Siebenjährige Krieg in den zeitgenössischen Flugschriften (Frankfurt am Main, 2006), p. 463.

Hans-Martin Blitz, Aus Liebe zum Vaterland. Die deutsche Nation im 18. Jahrhundert (Hamburg, 2000), pp. 160–67 (quotation p. 165).

Quoted in Neuhaus, ‘Das Problem der militärischen Exekutive’, p. 301.

‘The Instructions to the Commissioners for Composing a New Code of Laws’, Moscow, 30 July 1767, in William F. Reddaway (ed.), Documents of Catherine the Great. The correspondence with Voltaire and the Instruction of 1767 in the English text of 1768 (Cambridge, 1931), pp. 216–17.

Quoted in Scott, Emergence of the eastern powers, p. 99.

Franz A. J. Szabo, Kaunitz and enlightened absolutism, 1753–1780 (Cambridge, 1994), p. 76. I am grateful to Daniel Robinson for this reference.

Kathleen Wilson, The sense of the people. Politics, culture and imperialism in England, 1715–1785 (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 215–16.

Michael Roberts, Splendid isolation, 1763–1780 (Reading, 1970).

Quoted in Simms, Three victories, p. 536. See also P. J. Marshall, The making and unmaking of empires. Britain, India and America, c. 1750–1783 (Oxford, 2005), pp. 1–3, 59–60, 273–310, and passim.

Quoted in Norman Davies, God’s playground. A history of Poland. Vol. I: The origins to 1795 (Oxford, 1981), p. 511.

T. C. W. Blanning, The culture of power and the power of culture. Old regime Europe, 1660–1789 (Oxford, 2003).

Ron Chernow, Washington, a life (London, 2010), pp. 59–62.

Marc Egnal, A mighty empire. The origins of the American Revolution (Ithaca and London, 1988). Недавнее исследование о колонистах как “английских империалистах”: Robert Kagan, Dangerous nation (New York, 2006), pp. 12–16 and 18.

Jerzy Lukowski, The partitions of Poland, 1772, 1793, 1795 (London and New York), pp. 52–81 (Frederick is quoted on p. 55).

Cited in D. B. Horn, British public opinion and the First Partition of Poland (Edinburgh, 1945), pp. 26 and 36–7.

Bernd Marquardt, ‘Zur reichsgerichtlichen Aberkennung der Herrschergewalt wegen Missbrauchs. Tyrannenprozesse vor dem Reichshofrat am Beispiel des südöstlichen schwäbischen Reichskreises’, in Anette Baumann, Peter Oestmann, Stephan Wendehorst and Siegrid Westphal (eds.), Prozesspraxis im Alten Reich. Annäherungen – Fallstudien – Statistiken (Cologne, Weimar and Vienna, 2005), p. 53.

Jennifer Pitts, ‘The stronger ties of humanity: humanitarian intervention in the eighteenth century’. I thank Dr Pitts for letting me have sight of her excellent unpublished paper.

Robin A. Fabel, Colonial challenges. Britons, Native Americans and Caribs, 1759–1775 (Gainesville, 2000), pp. 158–60.

George P. Anderson, ‘Pascal Paoli: an inspiration to the Sons of Liberty’, Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 26 (1924–6), pp. 180–210, especially pp. 189–91 and 202–3 (for quotations).

Richard B. Sheridan, ‘The British credit crisis of 1772 and the American colonies’, Journal of Economic History, 20 (1960), pp. 161–86.

John Adams to Mercy Warren, 20 July 1807, in Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Fifth Series, IV (1878), p. 338. I thank Daniel Robinson for drawing this letter to my attention.

Richard Middleton, The War of American Independence, 1775–1783 (Harlow, 2012), pp. 15–36.

Hamish Scott, British foreign policy in the age of the American Revolution (Oxford, 1990), and Donald Stoker, Kenneth J. Hagan and Michael T. McMaster (eds.), Strategy in the American War of Independence. A global approach (London and New York, 2010).

Cited in Robert Rhodes Crout, ‘In search of a “just and lasting peace”: the treaty of 1783, Louis XVI, Vergennes, and the regeneration of the realm’, International History Review, 5, 3 (1983), p. 374.

Quoted in Kagan, Dangerous nation, p. 47.

Jonathan R. Dull, A diplomatic history of the American Revolution (New Haven and London, 1985), p. 47.

David M. Fitzsimmons, ‘Tom Paine’s new world order: idealistic internationalism in the ideology of early American foreign relations’, Diplomatic History, 19 (1995), pp. 569–82 (quotations p. 579).

Mlada Bukovansky, Legitimacy and power politics. The American and French Revolutions in international political culture (Princeton and Oxford, 2002), pp. 110–64 and 216–20, and Walter McDougall, Promised land, crusader state. The American encounter with the world since 1776 (New York, 1997).

Ben Baack, ‘Forging a nation state: the Continental Congress and the financing of the War of American Independence’, Economic History Review, 54, 4 (2001), pp. 639–56, especially pp. 639–40.

Quoted in Munro Price, Preserving the monarchy. The Comté de Vergennes, 1774–1787 (Cambridge, 1995), p. 22.

Sandwich remarks to cabinet, 19 January 1781, Queens’ House, in the presence of the king, in John G. R. Barnes and J. J. Owen (eds.), The Private Papers of John, Earl of Sandwich, 1771–1782 (London, 1932–8), Vol. 4, p. 24.

Парусные линейный корабли имели экипаж до 800 человек и вооружение до 130 орудий и предназначались для боевых действий в линейном боевом порядке, когда все корабли были обращены одним бортом к противнику. Примеч. ред.

Stephen Conway, The British Isles and the War of American Independence (Oxford, 2000), pp. 16, 350 and 17.

Cited in Scott, Emergence of the eastern powers, p. 1.

Quotations in Crout, ‘A “just and lasting peace”’, p. 398, and Maya Jasanoff, Liberty’s exiles. American loyalists in the revolutionary world (New York, 2011), p. 87.

Quoted in Stone, Genesis of the French Revolution, p. 142.

Quoted in Claus Scharf, ‘“La Princesse de Zerbst Catherinisée”. Deutschlandbild und Deutschlandpolitik Katharinas II.’, in Dagmar Herrmann (ed.), Deutsche und Deutschland aus russischer Sicht. 18. Jahrhundert: Aufklärung (Munich, 1992), p. 320.

Quoted in Jeremy Black, The rise of the European powers (London, 1990), p. 130.

Quoted in Brendan Simms, The struggle for mastery in Germany, 1779–1850 (Basingstoke, 1998), p. 45.

Vincent T. Harlow, The founding of the second British empire, 2 vols. (London, 1952–64), and C. A. Bayly, Imperial meridian. The British Empire and the world, 1780–1830 (London, 1989).

Quoted in Jeremy Black, British foreign policy in an age of revolutions, 1783–1793 (Cambridge, 1994), p. 13.

P. G. M. Dickson, ‘Count Karl von Zinzendorf’s “new accountancy”: the structure of Austrian government finance in peace and war, 1781–1791’, International History Review, 29, 1 (2007), pp. 22–56.

Ernst Wangermann, Die Waffen der Publizität. Zum Funktionswandel der politischen Literatur unter Joseph 11. (Vienna, 2004), pp. 168–84.

Karl Härter, ‘Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Reichspolitik Russlands als Garantiemacht des Teschener Friedens (1778–1803)’, in Claus Scharf (ed.), Katharina II., Rußland und Europa. Beiträge zur internationalen Forschung. Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für Europäische Geschichte, Supplement 45 (Mainz, 2001), pp. 133–81.

Hugh Ragsdale, ‘Evaluating the traditions of Russian aggression: Catherine II and the Greek Project’, Slavonic and East European Review, 66 (1988), pp. 91–117, especially pp. 95–6.

Quoted in Virginia H. Aksan, Ottoman wars 1700–1870. An empire besieged (Harlow, 2007), p. 161.

Quoted in Karl A. Roider, Austria’s Eastern Question, 1700–1790 (Princeton, 1982), p. 180.

Alexander Hamilton, Federalist Paper no. 34, 5.1.1788, in J. R. Pole (ed.), The Federalist. Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, John Jay (Indianapolis and Cambridge, 2005), p. 178.

James R. Sofka, ‘The Jeffersonian idea of national security. Commerce, the Atlantic balance of power, and the Barbary War, 1786–1805’, Diplomatic History, 21 (1997), pp. 519–44, especially pp. 519, 522 and 527.

Quoted in Doris A. Graber, Public opinion, the president, and foreign policy. Four case studies from the formative years (New York, Chicago etc., 1968), p. 133.

Deborah Allen, ‘Acquiring “knowledge of our own continent”: geopolitics, science, and Jeffersonian geography, 1783–1803’, Journal of American Studies, 40 (2006), pp. 205–32 (Jay is quoted on p. 216). For the importance of the west see François FÜrstenberg, ‘The significance of the trans – Appalachian Frontier in Atlantic history, c.1754–1815’, American Historical Review, 113 (2008), pp. 647–77.

Alexander Hamilton, Federalist Paper no. 25, 21.12.1787, in Pole (ed.), Federalist, p. 133.

Federalist Paper no. 7, 17.11.1787, in Pole (ed.), Federalist, pp. 28–9.

О страхе колонистов перед расколом и повторением опыта итальянских городов-государств: David C. Hendrickson, Peace pact. The lost world of the American founding (Lawrence, Kan., 2003), p. 63.

Federalist Paper no. 8, 20.11.1787, in Pole (ed.), Federalist, p. 37.

Federalist Paper no. 19, 8.12.1787, in Pole (ed.), Federalist, pp. 99–102. For the impact of the Polish partition on the constitutional convention see Frederick W. Marks, Independence on trial. Foreign affairs and the making of the constitution (Baton Rouge, 1973), pp. 3–51, especially p. 33.

Federalist Paper no. 5, 10.11.1787, in Pole (ed.), Federalist, pp. 17–18.

George William van Cleve, A slaveholders’ union. Slavery, politics, and the constitution in the early American Republic (Chicago and London, 2010), p. 9.

Значимость международного соперничества для конституции: Michael Schwarz, ‘The great divergence reconsidered. Hamilton, Madison, and U. S. – British relations, 1783–89’, Journal of the Early Republic, 27 (2007), pp. 407–36, especially pp. 419–21.

Quoted in Doyle, Aristocracy and its enemies, p. 99. See also Markus Hünemörder, The Society of the Cincinnati. Conspiracy and distrust in early America (New York and Oxford, 2006).

Roy Weatherup, ‘Standing armies and armed citizens: an historical analysis of the Second Amendment’, Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly, 2 (1975), pp. 961–1001, especially p. 995.

Wolfgang Burgdorf, Reichskonstitution und Nation. Verfassungsreformprojekte für das Heilige Römische Reich Deutscher Nation im politischen Schrifttum von 1648 bis 1806 (Mainz, 1998), pp. 328–35.

Munro Price, ‘The Dutch Affair and the fall of the ancien régime, 1784–1787’, Historical Journal, 38 (1995), pp. 875–905 (quotation p. 904).

Своим представлением о взаимосвязи дипломатического упадка ancien régime и началом французской революции я в немалой степени обязан работе: Gary J. Savage, ‘The French Revolution and the secret du roi. Diplomatic tradition, foreign policy and political culture in later eighteenth-century France (1756–1792)’ (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Cambridge, 2005).

Thomas Kaiser, ‘Who’s afraid of Marie-Antoinette? Diplomacy, Austrophobia and the Queen’, French History, 14, 3 (2000), pp. 241–71.

Quoted in Price, Vergennes, p. 234.

Montmorin is quoted in Jeremy J. Whiteman, Reform, revolution and French global policy, 1787–1791 (Aldershot, 2003), p. 103.

Munro Price, ‘The court nobility and the origins of the French Revolution’, in H. Scott and B. Simms (eds.), Cultures of power in Europe during the Long Eighteenth Century (Cambridge, 2007), pp. 278–9.

Chapter 2 of the Cahiers, quoted in John Hall Stewart (ed.), A documentary survey of the French Revolution (New York, 1951), p. 59.

Quotation in Stone, Genesis of the French Revolution, p. 207.

David A. Bell, The cult of the nation in France. Inventing nationalism, 1680–1800 (Cambridge, Mass., and London, 2001), pp. 14–17 and passim (Sieyes is quoted on p. 14).

Quoted in Michael Hochedlinger, ‘Who’s afraid of the French Revolution? Austrian foreign policy and the European crisis, 1787–1797’, German History, 21, 3 (2003), pp. 293–318 (quotation p. 303).

Reflections on the Revolution in France, in Paul Langford (ed.), The writings and speeches of Edmund Burke. Vol. VIII: The French Revolution, 1790–1794 (Oxford, 1989), pp. 131 and 60.

Richard Bourke, ‘Edmund Burke and international conflict’, in Ian Hall and Lisa Hill (eds.), British international thinkers from Hobbes to Namier (Basingstoke, 2009), pp. 91–116.

P. J. Marshall and John A. Woods (eds.), The correspondence of Edmund Burke. Vol. VII: January 1792–August 1794 (Cambridge, 1968), p. 383; R. B. McDowell (ed.), The writings and speeches of Edmund Burke. Vol. IX: I The Revolutionary War. II Ireland (Oxford, 1991), pp. 195 and 250 (vicinage); Brendan Simms, ‘“A false principle in the Law of Nations”. Burke, state sovereignty, [German] liberty, and intervention in the age of Westphalia’, in Brendan Simms and D. J. B. Trim (eds.), Humanitarian intervention. A history (Cambridge, 2011), p. 110.

Quoted in T. C. W. Blanning, The origins of the French Revolutionary Wars (Harlow, 1986), p. 132.

Horst Möller, ‘Primat der Aussenpolitik: Preussen und die französische Revolution, 1789–1795’, in Jürgen Voss (ed.), Deutschland und die französische Revolution (Munich, 1983), pp. 65–81.

Adam Hochschild, Bury the chains. The first international human rights movement (London and New York, 2005), p. 137, and William Hague, William Wilberforce. The life of the great anti-slave trade campaigner (London, 2007), pp. 149–50.

Цветному населению (фр.). Примеч. ред.

Jeremy Popkin, You are all free. The Haitian Revolution and the abolition of slavery (Cambridge, 2010), p. 276. See also John Thornton, ‘“I am the subject of the King of Congo”: African political ideology and the Haitian Revolution’, Journal of World History, 4, 2 (1993), pp. 181–214, especially p. 183.

Историческое герцогство в долине Рейна, по обоим берегам реки Рур. Примеч. ред.

Michael Hochedlinger, ‘“La cause de tous les maux de la France”. Die “Austrophobie” im revolutionären Frankreich und der Sturz des Königtums, 1789–1792’, Francia, 24 (1997), pp. 73–120.

Eckhard Buddruss, Die französische Deutschlandpolitik, 1756–1789 (Mainz, 1995).

Quotations in Savage, ‘The French Revolution and the secret du roi’, p. 211.

Sidney Seymour Biro, The German policy of Revolutionary France. A study in French diplomacy during the War of the First Coalition, 1792–1797, 2 vols. (Cambridge, Mass., 1957).

The Padua Circular and Declaration of Pillnitz are printed in Hall Stewart (ed.), Documentary survey, pp. 221–4.

Quoted in Patricia Chastain Howe, Foreign Policy and the French Revolution. Charles-François Dumouriez, Pierre LeBrun, and the Belgian Plan, 1789–1793 (Basingstoke, 2008), p. 47.

Quoted in Whiteman, Reform, revolution and French global policy, p. 130.

Linda and Marsha Frey, ‘“The reign of the charlatans is over”. The French Revolutionary attack on diplomatic practice’, Journal of Modern History, 65, 4 (1993), pp. 706–44, especially pp. 714–17.

The Brunswick Manifesto, 25.7.1792, in Hall Stewart (ed.), Documentary survey, pp. 307–8.

Munro Price, The fall of the French monarchy. Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette and the Baron de Breteuil (London, 2002).

Declaration of the National Assembly, in Hall Stewart (ed.), Documentary survey, p. 285.

Decree of Fraternity and Help to Foreign Peoples, 19.11.1792, in Hall Stewart (ed.), Documentary survey, p. 381.

Quoted in T. C. W. Blanning, The French Revolution in Germany. Occupation and resistance in the Rhineland, 1792–1802 (Oxford, 1983), p. 64.

Erwin Oberländer, ‘“Ist die Kaiserin von Russland Garant des Westfälischen Friedens?” Der Kurfürst von Trier, die Französische Revolution und Katharina II. 1789–1792, Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas, New Series, 35 (1987), pp. 218–31.

Jerzy Lukowski, Liberty’s folly. The Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth in the eighteenth century, 1697–1795 (London and New York, 1991), p. 265.

David Pickus, Dying with an enlightening fall. Poland in the eyes of German intellectuals, 1764–1800 (Lanham etc., 2001), pp. 36–45, 54–9 and 126–31 (quotation pp. 126–7).

Moser’s warning is quoted in Burgdorf, Reichskonstitution und Nation, p. 343.

Thomas Hippler, Citizens, soldiers and national armies. Military service in France and Germany, 1789–1830 (London and New York, 2008).

Quoted in Reynald Secher, A French genocide. The Vendée (Notre Dame, Ind., 2003), pp. 250–51.

Quoted in Richard Whatmore, ‘“A gigantic manliness”. Paine’s republicanism in the 1790s’, in Stefan Collini, Richard Whatmore and Brian Young (eds.), Economy, polity and society. British intellectual history, 1750–1950 (Cambridge, 2000), p. 150. For the strategic context of Paine’s thought see pp. 136, 138–40, 149 and passim.

Decree of 15.12.1792, in Hall Stewart (ed.), Documentary survey, p. 383.

David A. Bell, The first total war. Napoleon’s Europe and the birth of modern warfare (London, 2007).

Quoted in Howe, Foreign policy and the French Revolution, pp. 119 and 151.

Quoted in Jörg Ulbert, ‘France and German dualism, 1756–1871’, in Carine Germond and Henning Türk (eds.), A history of Franco-German relations in Europe. From ‘hereditary enemies’ to partners (Basingstoke, 2008), pp. 41–2.

Quoted in Biro, German policy of Revolutionary France, Vol. II, p. 624.

T. C. W. Blanning, Reform and revolution in Mainz, 1743–1803 (Cambridge, 1974).

Monika Neugebauer-Wölk, Revolution und Constitution. Die Brüder Cotta. Eine biographische Studie zum Zeitalter der Französischen Revolution und des Vormärz (Berlin, 1989), especially pp. 141–3.

Blanning, Reform and revolution in Mainz.

The quotations of Duke Frederick and the Bavarian envoy are in Simms, Struggle for mastery in Germany, pp. 60–61.

The Senckenberg quotation is in Burgdorf, Reichskonstitution und Nation, p. 411.

Букв. «всеобщее вооружение народа» (нем.). Примеч. ред.

Букв. «массовое вооружение» (фр.), всеобщая воинская повинность. Примеч. ред.

Пример авторского анахронизма: переворот 18 фрюктидора был поддержан Наполеоном, но до единоличной власти (переворот 18 брюмера) оставалось еще два года. Примеч. ред.

Philip Dwyer, Napoleon. The path to power, 1769–1799 (London, 2007), passim.

Quoted in Blanning, ‘Frederick the Great’, in Simms and Urbach (eds.), Die Rückkehr der ‘Grossen Männer’, p. 23.

Philip G. Dwyer (ed.), ‘Napoleon and the drive for glory: reflections on the making of French foreign policy’, in Philip G. Dwyer (ed.), Napoleon and Europe (London, 2001), p. 129.

Javier Cuenca Esteban, ‘The British balance of payments, 1772–1820: India transfers and war finance’, Economic History Review, 54, 1 (2001), pp. 58–86, especially pp. 58 and 65–6.

Quoted in Gunther E. Rothenberg, ‘The origins, causes, and extension of the wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon’, Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 18 (1988), p. 789.

Daniela Neri, ‘Frankreichs Reichspolitik auf dem Rastatter Kongress (1797–1799)’, Francia, 24 (1997), pp. 137–57, especially pp. 155–6.

Quoted in Hochedlinger, ‘Who’s afraid of the French Revolution?’, p. 310.

Geoffrey Symcox, ‘The geopolitics of the Egyptian expedition, 1797–1798’, in Irene A. Bierman (ed.), Napoleon in Egypt (Reading, 2003).

Quoted in Edward James Kolla, ‘Not so criminal: new understandings of Napoleon’s foreign policy in the east’, French Historical Studies, 30, 2 (2007), p. 183. О склонности Наполеона воспринимать Азию в рамках европейской концепции баланса сил: Iradji Amini, Napoleon and Persia. Franco-Persian relations under the First Empire, within the con – text of the rivalries between France, Britain and Russia (Richmond, 1999), pp. 47–54.

Quoted in Karl A. Roider, Baron Thugut and Austria’s response to the French Revolution (Princeton, 1992), pp. 283–4.

Manfred Hellmann, ‘Eine Denkschrift über Russland aus dem Jahre 1800’, in Heinz Dollinger, Horst Gründer and Alwin Hanschmidt (eds.), Weltpolitik. Europagedanke. Regionalismus (Münster, 1962), pp. 135 and 156 (quotation p. 139).